SETTLEMENTS

SETTLEMENTS

Types, patterns and morphology of rural settlements; 




Urban developments; 



Morphology of Indian cities;

Functional classification of Indian cities;

 

Basis of Classification of Towns

There are many basis of urban classification or we can identify different types of urban classification. The 5 type’s are-

1. Genetic Classification- Deals with the origin of cities in context of time.
2. Location/ Size Classification-Geographical setting of the town
3. Morphological Classification- Form and the internal structure of the cities.
4. Hierarchical Classification- cities classified on the bases of order of functions performed an their intensity.
5.  Functional Classification- Cities may be classified on the basis of type of economic activities carried on in the city. Certain economic activities may have acquired greater significance than others. For example: - presence of Iron and Steel industry lends a certain name and character to the city. Some cities are known for their administrative status as State / District capitals, others for their educational Institutions and yet others for Trade and Transport. In terms of India, generally tertiary activities are most important followed by Secondary (including household and organized Modern industry). Primary activity forms third important activity and it is a dominant activity in the small towns.

Functional Classification of Urban Places

There are two approaches to study of Functional classification of towns:-

1.      Dominant Function Approach- In which largest number of workers are employed in one activity in the city. This approach is far too simple and ignores the presence of other activities in town. Moreover, the number and percentage of workers is not always the best measure because manufacturing, by its very nature can employ more people than in trade. Hence, the number of workers in these two activities is not directly comparable.

2.      Multiple Function approach- This approach measures the degree of specialization in a particular activity. The degree of specialization is determined by number of workers in city in relation to some norms which is set for a city.

The dominant function approach can be exemplified by that of Harris and Multiple Function approach by that of Nelson.

Dominant Function Approach:

Chauncy D. Harris classified the US cities in 1930. He was able to identify qualitatively dominant function out of Multifunctional character of cities. He used employment and occupational data reduced to percentages to indicate cut off points for urban activities ranging in importance. His classification is based on the fact that some activity groups employ many more persons than other do.

Functional Classification of Cities of USA – by Harris

1.      Manufacturing Cities – Manufacturing Sub types

a.       Employment in manufacturing equal to 74% of total employment in manufacturing combined with retailing and wholesaling.

b.      Manufacturing and mechanical industry contain atleast 45 % of gainful workers (Occupation) example: - Detroit, New York, North California.

2.      Manufacturing Cities – Manufacturing Sub types

a.       Atleast 60% of the total employment in manufacturing, retailing and wholesaling, together.

b.      Manufacturing and mechanical industry contain between 30% and 45% of gainful workers. Example: - Buffalo, Philedelhia, Rochester.

3.      Retail Centres

a.       Atleast 50% of the total employment in manufacturing, retailing and wholesaling, together.

b.      Atleast 2.2 times of wholesaling alone. Example: Tulsa, Wichita, Shreveport.

4.      Diversified Cities

a.       Employment in manufacturing, wholesaling and retailing is less than 60%, 20% and 50% respectively, of the total employment in these activities.

b.      Manufacturing and mechanical industry contain between 25% and 35% of gainful workers. Example: - Boston, Kansas city, Los Angeles.

5.      Wholesale Centre

a.       Employment in wholesale is atleast 20% of total employment in manufacturing , retailing and wholesaling, together.

b.      Atleast as much as 45% is in retailing alone. Example:- California, Denver.

6.      Transport Centres

a.       Transport and Communication is atleast 11% of gainful workers ad workers in transport and communication equal atleast 1/3 the number in manufacturing and mechanical.

b.      Atleast 2/3 the number in trade. Example :- New Orleans

7.       Mining Towns

Extraction of minerals account for more than 15% of gainful workers (for cities of population more than 25,000) Example:- Minnesota , Michigan.

8.      University Towns

Enrolment in colleges (University, Technical Institutions, Liberal arts colleges and Teacher’s Colleges) .  Atleast 25% of population of the city. Example:- Florida, Manhattan, Utah.

9.      Resort and Retirement Towns

Cities with low percentage of population. Example: Resorts: Atlantic City, Miami.   Retirement towns: Fort Collins, Colorado

Carter labelled Harris’s classifications as subjective because the decisions of the cut off points seem to be personal one and were set by simple means.

Multiple Function Approach:

Howard Nelson based his classification on major industry groups as listed in 1950 census of population. Nelson identified 9 activity groups:-

1.      Manufacturing

2.      Retail trade

3.      Professional Science

4.      Transport and Communication

5.      Personal science

6.      Public Administration

7.      Wholesale Trade

8.      Finances, Insurance and Real estate

9.      Mining

For each activity group, average population of labour force engaged in that activity was determined. Standard Deviation was calculated to determine Functional specialization of an individual city in a given industry group. 4 degrees of variation from the mean were recognized and the towns grouped in their appropriate categories.

Nelson computed 3 Standard Deviations - +1 Standard Deviation, +2 Standard Deviation and +3 Standard Deviation. For each activity group, since he was concerned with levels of employment that were unusually high in order to identify functional emphasis in a chosen city. The chosen city might be in 1, 2 or 3 standard deviation above the employment in a given industry group.  If deviation is positive from the mean is:

v  Within 1sd for all functions- DIVERSIFIED TOWN

v  More than 1sd for 1function- UNIFUNCTIONAL TOWN

v  More than 1sd for 2 functions- BIFUNCTIONAL TOWNS

v  More than 2sd for a function- HIGHLY SPECIALIZED.

In Nelson`s Method the ordering of towns according to functions (distinctive function) does not actually bring out the real scenario of classification of the economic activity. As far as degree of specialization is concerned, the method focuses more on whether the town is unifunctional, bifunctional or diversified, rather than bringing out which function actually predominates.

Functional Classification of Indian Cities

The main scope of information on this aspect is the Indian Census. It adopted this typology from old  US classification of economic activities. It is called STANDARD INDUSTRIAL CLASSIFICATION.

PRIMARY ACTIVITIES

1.      Cultivation

2.      Agricultural Labourers

3.      Forestry, fishing, Plantations and mining and quarrying etc.

SECONDARY ACTIVITIES

4.      Household Industry

5.      Manufacturing other than household industry

TERTIARY ACTIVITIES

6.      Construction

7.      Trade and commerce

8.      Transport Storage and Communication

9.      Services

Amrit Lal’s Classification of Indian Towns

Amrit lal’s classification is a Multi-functional classification as he compares the percentage of workers in every type of economic activity in a city to the national average for the respective activities. He calculated a LOCATIONAL QUOTIENT for each economic activity in every town and uses it to define the functional categories.

Methodology:

Loactional Quotient for city A in industry I:

=            Percentage of all workers in city A in Industry I  

        Median Percentage of all workers in Industry I in all cities

If Locational Quotient = 1 , then city A has Normal Specilalization or Concentration of that Industry and if Locational Quotient is more than 1, then city A has extraordinary specialization of that Industry.

The Locational Quotient is multiplied by 100 (Locational Quotient * 100)

	Range	Specialization
Locational Quotient	90 – 109	Normal
Locational Quotient	More than 110	Significant

Cities with significant specialization i.e. more than 110 Locational Quotient is divided into following categories according to Locational Quotient value.

	Range	Class
Locational Quotient	Over 170	A
Locational Quotient	150 – 169	B
Locational Quotient	130 – 149	C
Locational Quotient	110 - 129	D

Classification: Amrit Lal divided Indian cities into 5 major and 3 minor categories.

	Major	Minor
1.	Manufacturing	Wholesale trade
2.	Transport	Finance, Insurance and real estate
3.	Retail Trade	Education
4.	Public Administration
5.	Other Professional services

Functional Classification by Asok Mitra

A thorough classification of all urban places in India was attempted by Asok Mitra, a former Registrar General of Census and a noted authority on population statistics in India. He grouped 7 Industrial categories of workers (excluded category I and II) into 3 broad groups to derive 3 major functional types:

A.    Manufacturing Town :

III. Forestry, Fishing, Plantation, Mining and Quarrying etc.

IV. Household Industry

V.   Manufacturing other than household industry

VI. Construction

Percentage of workers in A – ( III. , IV. , V. , VI. ) is greater than percentage of workers in B – ( VII. , VIII. ) put together or percentage of workers in C – ( IX )

B.     Trade and Transport Town:

VII.  Trade and Commerce

VIII. Transport , Storage and Communication

Percentage of workers in B – ( VII.  and VIII.  together )  is greater than  C – ( IX ) or A - ( III. , IV. , V. , VI. ) together.

C.    Service Town :

IX.  Services

Percentage of workers in C – ( IX ) is greater than  B –( VII.  and VIII.  together ) or A - ( III. , IV. , V. , VI. ) together.

Manufacturing and Trade and Transport town were further sub-classified as :

A.    Manufacturing Town

1)      Mining or Plantation Town - Percentage of workers in III is greater than 10% or more than IV. , V., or VI.

2)      Artisan town - Percentage of workers in IV.  Is greater than 10% or more than III. , V., or VI.

3)      Manufacturing Town - Percentage of workers in V.  Is greater than 10% or more than III. , V. , or VI

4)      Construction Town - Percentage of workers in VI.  is greater  than 10% or more than III. , IV. , or V.

B.     Trade and transport Towns

5)      Trading Town - Percentage of workers in VII is greater than 10% or more than VIII.

6)      Transport Town - Percentage of workers in VIII. is greater  than 10% or more than VII.

Methodology

Triangular Method:

In all 7 towns were recognized. The degree of specialization in each of the 3 basic groups was identified on the basis of Triangular Method.

In this method, the number of workers in each of the three groups is expressed as a percentage of the total, thus, the values for all 3 groups would add up to 100. The values of the 3 groups are then plotted on a triangular graph, represented by an Equilateral triangle. Thus, each town or city may be plotted as appoint within the Equilateral Triangle, where the perpendiculars drawn to each of the 3 sides of the triangle are directly proportional to the percentage of workers in each of the three groups.

The In centre of the Equilateral Triangle represents a town in which the percentage of workers in each of the three groups is exactly 33 ¹/₃. Such a town has obviously no Functional Specialization. Asok Mitra drew three circles with radius of 6 2/3, 11 2/3 and 16 2/3 units from the in centre to differentiate four levels of specialization.

He designed the degrees of specialization as follows:

	Degree of Specialization	Code	Location in Triangle
I.	Functions Highly diversified	FDH	Within 1st Circle
II.	Functions Moderately diversified	FMD	Between 1st and 2nd Circle
III.	Predominant Function Accentuated	PFA	Between 2nd and 3rd Circle
IV.	Predominant Function highly Accentuated	PFHA	Outside 3rd circle but within the field.

Hence to calculate the degree of specialization Value of each three groups are expressed as a percentage to the total (III to IX), adding up to 100. Then these values are plotted on the triangle.

On the Basis of Degree of Specialisation
Functional Type	Function Highly Diversified            FHD	Function Moderately Diversified      FMD	Predominant Function Accentuated  PFA	Predominant Function Highly Accentuated PFHA	Total
Manufacturing (A)	28	28	11	55	122
Trade and Transport (B)	67	46	24	11	148
Services (C)	24	16	6	20	66
Total	119	90	41	86	336

On the basis of these 3 functions, on the map of Maharashtra all these 3 were plotted for 336 towns by giving a clear overview of towns and their degree of specialisation.

Greater Mumbai with just 1 town performed highly diversified function with only manufacturing as its main area of specialisation. Thane the most urbanised district had 16 manufacturing towns, 4 in Trade and Transport and 3 in service. Districts like Osmanabad, Latur, Buldana and Akola had no manufacturing towns. The major functions were either Trade and Transport or Services, amongst which Trade and transport had the highest percentage. Chandrapur and Gadchiroli district have no towns engaged in Trade and Transport, they mainly are engaged in Manufacturing or Service.

Districts located near the sea enjoy the benefits of advantageous location because of port and huge supply of water to industries. Also huge labour force is cheaply and widely available because of migration due to many pull factors.

 

The towns are further classified into Diversified and Specialised.

Main Functional Types of Towns
Functional Type	Diversified Function	Predominant Function Accentuated	Total
Manufacturing (A)	56	66	122
Trade and Transport (B)	113	35	148
Services (C)	40	26	66
Total	209	127	336

Ashok Mitra classification on the whole brings out the major categories on the basis of broad economic activities. It succeeds in differentiating Manufacturing, Trading and Service cities.

Conclusion

It can be interpreted from the above data tables, that functional specialisation is lacking in Indian cities, specially seen in the study area of Maharashtra. There exists a system of diversified towns. With globalisation big cities are acquiring more and more service functions including financial and business services and therefore service component of the economy is increasing, but still service is not much specialised in the state. In Maharashtra maximum towns are specialised in Trade and transport with very few towns having it as predominant function.

Aurousseau’s Attempt:

Here some of the most significant classifications have been discussed. In 1921, M. Aurousseau classified towns into six classes: 

1. administrative, 
2. defence, 
3. culture, 
4. production-towns, 
5. communication and 
6. recreation. 

His classification though a simple one, however, suffers from the defect of over-generalization. To classify a town into one major category, generally neglects the role of other classes. The cut-off point of one-class is decided by the arbitrary percentage, and therefore it is subjective.

Economic activities too are neglected. These are important in the sense that a town also caters for the need of people residing outside its municipal limits. Various classes of functions as suggested by Aurousseau create confusion in the sense that both functional and locational characteristics are mixed; for example, under communica­tion-class group of towns performing function of ‘transfer of goods’ are put.

Towns with tidal-limit, fall-line-towns, bridgehead towns point out attribute of location in performance of their function. It is thus doubtful that such towns are exclusively communicational, and not locational. Similarly, pilgrimage centres are cultural towns, but these equally are significant in their geographical location on mountainous terrain, in valleys or on banks of rivers.

Univer­sity-town is also a misnomer because this type of adjective cannot be its function but only a single quality among its overall urban milieu. But Anuousseau’s classification marks a signif­icant stage and provides a springboard for sophisticated methods. It is actually a comprehensive scheme bringing together polygonal functional urban activities to classify urban centres.

Harris’s Classification:

Chauncy D. Harris remedied the deficiencies of the former subjective and common-sense-judgement-based classifications. He was able to identify quantitatively dominant function out of multifunctional character of cities. He used employment as well as occupational figures reduced to percentages to indicate cut-off points for urban activities varying in importance.

His classification is based on the fact that some activity-groups employ many more persons than others do. For example, USA’s 27 per cent employed persons of the total urban employment are in manufacturing, while wholesale trade has about 4 per cent. Thus, it is obvious that some functions should be assigned higher percentages than others. From analyzes, he was able to set up limits for each of his types as shown in the Table 9.1.

Harris’s classification suffers with some grave defects and cannot be universally viable. He used metropolitan districts as functional units because the industry-group data such as those published now were not then available when he did his research. Consequently, number of cities which were too small to have metropolitan districts were left unclassified. In his article referred here (Geo. Rev. Vol. 33, Table 1) he did not include a list of urban centres and the categories to which they belonged.

Carter labelled Harris’s classification as subjective because the decisions to access or delete with a minimum number or cut-off points seem to be a personal one and were set by simple empirical means. Under the class of ‘Transport and Communications’, workers engaged in telephone and telegraph services were omitted simply on empirical grounds which was nothing more than a subjective decision.

ADVERTISEMENTS:

Duncan and Reiss tried to revise the problem of functional specialization by using the lowest value of supper decline or quantile groups. This revision is advantageous in the sense that it made an allowance for the different size-classes in the classification.

Howard Nelson’s Classification:

Nelson further removed the shortcomings of the classifications of those of Harris and others by using a stated procedure that could be objectively checked by other workers. He decided to base his method of classification entirely upon major industry groups as listed in the 1950 Census of Population for standard metropolitan areas, urbanized areas and urban places of 10,000 or more population. He omitted the little significance groups like agriculture and construction, and finally, arrived at the nine activity groups.

The problem of city specialization, and also the degree of specialization above the average was solved by giving margins of different degree to different size classes. He did find a definite tendency for the percentages employed in some activities vary with city size. The question – ‘When is a city specialized?’ was solved by using a statistical technique – the Standard Deviation (SD).

A city can be specialized in more than one activity and to varying degrees. Thus he showed for each city all activities that qualified for plus 1, plus 2, or plus 3 SDs above the mean. Table 9.2 indicates averages and SD in percentages for selected nine activity groups (1950) as developed by Nelson.

Suppose, any city which is classified as Pf 2F, it means that it has 22.87 or more but less than 28.76 per cent of its labour-force employed in professional service and 4.44 or more but less than 5.69 per cent employed in finance, insurance and real estate. In short, the table indicates, the number of SDs shows the degree to which the urban centre stands out for the activity in question. A city which does not fall even under 1 SD, average in any activity appears as diversified D, in Nelson’s classification.

Conurbations and metropolitan regions; 
example- agra to delhi and delhi to amritsar and  dehradun
                kolkata to naihati


urban sprawl; 

Slums and associated problems; 

A compact settlement of at least 20 households with a collection of poorly built tenements, mostly of temporary nature, crowded together usually with inadequate sanitary and drinking water facilities in unhygienic conditions

Causes-
rapid pop growth, unemployment in rural areas, migration, high land values in urban , shortage of cheap residential areas

17% of indian population lives in slums
 Maharashtra, with an estimated 7723 slums, accounted for about 23% of all slums in urban India, followed by Andhra Pradesh, accounting for 13.5%, and West Bengal, which had a share of about 12%.

Town planning; 

1. development of city centre- CBD
2. division of town into functional zones
3. green belt
4. urban decentralisation- satellite city
5. transport- outer ring roads, metro, pedestrianization, ‘Transit Oriented Development (TOD)’ which enables people to live within walking or cycling distance from transit corridors like the Metros, Monorail and Bus Rapid Transit (BRT) corridors,
6. rehab , redevelopment, and renewal
7. land use 
8. open spaces- ensuring spaces for street vendors
9. separate areas for industries

‘National Transit Oriented Development Policy’ which will be  discussed with the States and Union Territories at a National Workshop on Urban Development to be held Tuesday next week. This policy seeks to enhance the depth of understanding of States and UTs on TOD as a viable solution to many of the challenges like haphazard urban growth and sprawl, mobility, rapidly rising private vehicles on roads,  pollution, housing choices etc.. This new urban design and planning in the form of TOD, is being incentivesed by the Ministry under two more initiatives viz., Metro Policy and Green Urban Mobility Scheme which also will be discussed with States and UTS for taking them on board.

            Under TOD, city densification will be promoted along mass transit corridors through vertical construction by substantially enhancing  FARs (Floor Area Ratio) backed by  promotion of Non-motorised Transport Infrastructure for walking and cycling to transport stations, development of street networks in the influence zone of transit corridors, multi-modal integration, effective first and last mile connectivity through feeder services to enable people access public transit in 5 to 10 minutes  from home and work places.

            Dense living along transit corridors besides resulting in enhanced living and travel experience, will also improve ridership of mass transit systems. If properly executed, TOD could emerge as a means of financing mass transit project, for which the demand is growing.

            TOD promotes integration of land use planning with transportation and infrastructure development to avoid long distance travel in cities through compact development as against the present pattern of unplanned and haphazard urban growth.

            Under the new Metro Policy, TOD has been mandatory while under Green Urban Mobility  Scheme, TOD has been made an essential reform  and  is given priority for receiving central assistance.

Example of town planning
Chandigarh- 30 sectors- 24 residential, 6 for others
                     17 is the CBD

Problems of urbanization and remedies.

1. Urban sprawl
2. overcrowding
3. housing
4. slum and squatter
5. transport

solution

Smart cities 

AMRUT

HRIDAY- Heritage City Development and Augmentation Yojana 

PMAY- Pradhan Mantri Awas Yojana (Urban)

Climatology

Types and distribution of precipitation

When we say about types it is the types of precipitation like convectional orographic cyclonic or frontal precipitation very important is that do not confuse it with the forms of precipitation which is drizzle snow sleet hail ok

So forms of precipitation rain drizzle snow sleet hail

Hail
-It is precipitation of small balls or pieces of ice with the diameter ranging from 5 to 50 mm falling out separately or agglomerated into irregular lumps
- produced in violent thunderstorms or cumulonimbus cloud
- resembles that of onion having concentric layers of ice alternating with layers of snow
Formation
Strong updraft of the raindrops
Updraft in the cumulonimbus clouds Clouds
Factors strength of updraft concentration of supercooled water total length of its path through cloud very important note it "through cloud"

Hail storms seldom occur in topics and higher latitudes portions free from hail Storm

Impacts:
Devastating Effects on cross, damage to flights
Difficulty to forecast

MONSOON AND JET STREAMS

MONSOON
Monsoon can be said as wind system in which seasonal reversal of direction takes place

Theories associated with monsoon
Thermal concept
   Halley
   It is considered as gigantic convectional system produced by differential seasonal heating of continental and oceanic areas
   They are thermally induced
    Explain each step elaborately

Flohn's concept
   According to him the existence of Asian monsoon is not due to the temperature contrast between land and sea but mainly due to the annual Migration of thermally produced planetary winds and pressure belts under Continental influence
   It is seasonal Migration of planetary winds following the movement of the Sun
    During Northern summer all the wind belts are displaced towards the north while during northern winter shift towards the South following the Apparent movement of sun in its Zenith
    Draw a diagram showing that tropical easterlies after crossing equator becomes equatorial westerlies

Criticism
He seems to have ignored the upper atmospheric circulation which makes the monsoon more complex

Asian monsoon
Whenever the question is on Asian monsoon remember you don't have to concentrate on Indian monsoon its Tibet concept
Draw two diagrams
1.one depicting Asia during winter
2.depicting Asia during summer

Population and settlement Geography

Causes and consequences of migration
This includes migration and various theories various terms associated with migration complete study of migration

1.
Migration is defined as the permanent and semi permanent change of residence of an individual or group of people over significant distance

2. Migration can be classified as International inter-regional urban to Urban rural to Urban

On the basis of time factor it can be classified as temporary or permanent

3. Causes of Migration
   P o w d e g c r s
P for political causes
O for overpopulation
W for war
E for economic causes
D for demographic causes
G for government policy
C for climate change
R and S for religious and social causes

4. Theories of migration EG Ravenstein
Lee's and Zelinskys mobility transition model

5. Discuss the contemporary International migration pattern

Social well being and quality of life
1. Discuss quality of life

Population as social capital
1. How Indian demography server as social capital

World population problems and policies
1. Discuss population problems of world
     Problems of developing countries
     Problems of developed countries

2. Explain population dilemmas of European countries
   1. Europe population has begin to decline since 1990 it is older than that of any other continent population of many European countries like Germany Russia Ukraine is stagnating or declining the fertility rate in most of the countries in Europe where below the replacement level in 2011 none of European countries except Albania Bosnia Latvia is at present is replacing its population through natural increase the annual rate of natural increase in all European countries except Albania and Iceland or below 0.5% as against world rate of 1.4% Germany has the oldest population in the world with small proportion of young and large share of middle aged people

Problems created due to zero population growth
1.Reduce the demand for colleges universities .
2.it is projected by end of 2015 the present unemployment situation will be replaced by shortage of workers
3.there will be burden on the government exchequer to provide pension on social services to old age people

3.Compare population policy of India with other countries

4.compare population policy of India with China

5. What are the various Strategies for population control
     . Controlling birth rate through tough sterilization policy or less coercive of increasing family planning
Government policy like publicizing the merits of small family.
offering financial rewards to parents providing contraceptives and abortion facilities free of cost and
penalties for families having more than designated number of child example Singapore where space is extremely limited
the policy like postponement of age of sexual activity

Above all we need social and institutional changes that decline fertility

6. Explain population policy of India
Voluntary family planning policy has been adopted from 1960
1976 -77 of sterilization policy adopted by then government
Later less coercive method of zinghr family planning
Placing health expert in villages with more than thousand people
financial rewards to parents who have except sterilization after two children
Providing contraceptives free of cost

REGIONAL PLANNING

Planning for sustainable development

Spatial or land use planning plays a key role in shaping and directing
resource use and in the resulting impacts of carbon emissions (among
other externalities

valuable environmental and recreational assets in both town and countryside

Rachel Carson’s Silent Spring (1962) and the Club
of Rome’s Limits to Growth (Meadows et al., 1972), were entwined with
environmental agitation, protest and organisation

sustainable development, a number of key principles
can be identified and outlined
1.Environmentalism
Environmentalism incorporates the idea that the full environmental
costs and benefits should be considered in any decision-making process.
2.Development
The two words ‘sustainable’ and ‘development’ (see also Chapter 19) are
put together to stress a process of change and improvement
3. Equity
4.Participation


At the heart
of sustainable development is the simple idea of ensuring a better quality
of life for everyone, now and for future generations’

Urban planning
sustainable
patterns of development as (DETR, 2000, para. 21):
•• concentrating most additional housing development within urban
areas;
•• making more efficient use of land by maximising the reuse of previously
developed land and the conversion and reuse of existing buildings;
•• assessing the capacity of urban areas to accommodate more housing;
•• adopting a sequential approach to the allocation of land for housing
development;
•• managing the release of housing land;
•• reviewing existing allocations of housing land in plans, and planning
permissions when they come up for renewal.

Delineation Of Functional Regions

This method involves the grouping together of units which display a considerable degree of interdependence.

Two basic approaches: (i) Flow analysis- based on actual observations of what people do.   (ii) Gravitational analysis- based on theoretical observations of what they might do.

The two approaches are explained below in detail.

A. Flow Analysis Method

Builds up flows on the basis of the direction and intensity flows between the dominant center and surrounding satellites.

Flows may be of several types: economic (road, rail, shopping or commuting); social (such as flow of students or patients); political (flow of govt. expenditure); information (newspapers, telephone calls), etc.

Graph theory: measures the relationship (economic, social, etc) between selected group of centers on the basis of flows between the centers. The no. of telephone calls is the usual flow criteria.

The flows are plotted in matrix form, from which primary and secondary flows into and out of each center can be identified.

B. Gravitational Analysis Method

It is concerned with the theoretical forces of attraction between centers rather than the actual flows.

This model assumes that the interaction between two centers is directly proportional to the ‘mass’ of centers and inversely proportional to the ‘distance’ between them.

‘Mass’ is represented by variables like population, employment, income, expenditure and retail turnover.

‘Distance’ is represented in physical terms (miles), time, price and intervening opportunities.

Mathematically

By calculating the potential for the centers, lines illustrating relative attractiveness, spheres of influence of various centers can be plotted on a map.

From such lines, functional regions can be identified.

Questions

1. S e z is a tool for Regional development comment

Perspectives in Human Geography

Perspectives in Human Geography

Areal differentiation; regional synthesis; Dichotomy and dualism; Environmentalism; Quantitative revolution and locational analysis; radical, behavioural, human and welfare approaches; Languages, religions and secularisation; Cultural regions of the world; Human development index.

Basic concepts

Humboldt / Ritter / Darwin / Vidal le blcanche /Carl sauer contibution; Khuns paradigm applied in geography; Ideographic vs Nomothetic )/ Ecumen and non ecumen regions

ECUMENE AND NON-ECUMENE REGIONS 

1. The permanently inhabited lands are referred to as the  ecumene, while the uninhabited, intermittently or sparsely inhabited lands are referred to as the non-ecumene.
2. The boundaries of these regions are not distinct but diffuse into each other. 
3. The major limiting factors are climate, drainage, soil, rough terrain, wild vegetation, altitude and the degree of proneness to disease. Although, the Antarctic ice caps and Greenland represent complete, continuous non-ecumene, most of the non-ecumene is in form of unoccupied, isolated and intermittently occupied regions of varying size and is confined to desert wastes, cold barren, high mountains, swamps and primitive forests of tropics and sub Arctic’s. About 60% of the world’s total area could be referred to as ecumene.

MAJOR ECUMENE REGIONS
Four major clusters or ecumene account for 75% of the world’s total population.
1.  East Asia (China, Japan) is the largest ecumene and a sub-tropical region accounting for 25% of the world’s total populations.
2.  South Asia (India and neighbours) ranks second. It is a tropical region accounting for 25% of the world’s population. This is a region having pre-modern subsistence economy which is predominantly agricultural. The population distribution is determined by agricultural potential of the land food supply. Poverty, malnutrition and low levels of living are common. Birth rates are high; death rates are low but not like the developed countries. Therefore high growth rates prevail. This regions account for only 20% of the world’s resources.
3.  Formers USSR, a mid-latitude region, accounts for 20% of the total population.
4.  North America accounts for 5% of the total population. It is a highly industrialized region with specialized pockets and generally high standards of living throughout.

MAJOR NON-ECUMENE REGIONS  These include, generally, the cold, dry and hot-wet lands. Main features of these regions and future prospects for habitation are discussed below.
Cold, High-Latitude Lands. These include the ice caps of Antarctica,
Greenland, Tundra region of North America and Eurasia and the Arctic and sub-Arctic cold deserts. The main limitations of these regions are long sunless periods, extreme cold temperatures, and almost no vegetation. Only towards the southern margins, some habitation is possible. Future prospects for settlement in this region are bleak due to severity of climate.
Dry Lands  These are characterized by deficiency of water, low precipitation, sparse vegetation, unreliable yields. These lands are intermittently occupied by nomadic groups with dense populations only in a few oases. These regions recently witnessed expansion of population with development of irrigation techniques. This is also possible in future, but at high costs.

Hot-Wet lands  These regions show abundance of climatic energy in form of solar energy and precipitation which cause luxuriant vegetation growth that can support large populations. The wet tropics of the old world are better populated than those of the new world. Nearly 20% of the new world wet tropics can be brought under habitation with suitable land use. Thus, only the wet tropics show prospects of dense population concentrations in decades to come.

Areal differentiation

1. The study of the spatial distribution of physical and human phenomena as they relate to each other spatially proximate and causally linked phenomena in regions or other spatial units. Along with spatial analysis and landscape approaches, this is often seen as one of the three major approaches to understanding in human geography
2. term coined by hartshorne
3. terms- chorology by strabo
4. Reason for revival- study of human geography, study uneven development, linked to humanism , welfare and sociology
5. feature- ideographic, regional focus (meaning of ideographic- http://www.encyclopedia.com/social-sciences/dictionaries-thesauruses-pictures-and-press-releases/ideographic-versus-nomothetic-approaches)
6. Advantages-
7. criticism-Chorology drew to a close during the 1950s, beginning with a famous attack on Hartshorne’s worldview by Frederick Schaefer in 1953. Essentially, Schaefer claimed that the view that geography is an integrative science concerned with the unique was naive and arrogant because such issues were common to many sciences. By refusing to search for explanatory laws, geography condemned itself to what Schaefer called an immature science. Rather than seeking idiographic regions, geographers should seek nomothetic regularities across regions. This critique helped open the door to the rise of positivism and the quantitative revolution.

Regional Synthesis

1. Brian J.L. Berry in the Annals of the Association of American Geographers, Vol. 54 (1964) has endeavoured to explain regional synthesis by using a geographic matrix
2. Synthesis of not only spatial but includes temporal also
3. link: http://www.geographynotes.com/human-geography/regional-synthesis-of-human-geography-2/1040

Dichotomy and dualism

general vs regional/Detterminism vs possibilism/Physical vs human/ Systematic vs regional/ Historical vs contemporary/formal vs functional

Environmentalism

Ellen Churchill semple

Quantitative revolution

Richard hagget

Chorley

Critic-LD stamp and Minshull

Locational analysis

Locational analysis is an approach to human Geography which focuses on the spatial arrangement of phenomena the main objective of location analysis is generalisation models and theories with productive power

Its philosophy is positivism and quantitative revolution

 1950 and

 geographers as like Bunge and mccarty

Based on empiricism

Hagget in his book locational analysis in human Geography appeal to adopt geometrical tradition in order to explain location order and patterns in human geography

Now write merits and demerits

Radical,Behavioral, Human, welfare

1.GEOMORPHOLOGY

Geomorphology

This chapter can be divided as three parts for the purpose of convenience:

Part 1:
Origin and evolution of the earth's crust; 
Fundamentals of geomagnetism; 
Physical conditions of the earth's interior; 
Geosynclines; 
Continental drift; 
Isostasy; 
Plate tectonics; 
Recent views on mountain building; 
Vulcanicity; Earthquakes and Tsunamis; 

Part 2:
Factors controlling landform development; 
endogenetic and exogenetic forces; 
Concepts of geomorphic cycles and Landscape development ; 
Denudation chronology; 
Channel morphology; 
Erosion surfaces; 
Slope development ; 

Part 3:
Applied Geomorphology : Geohydrology, economic geology and environment.




VULCANITY

1.Fumaroles

what- Emission of gases +water vapour from vents

associated with volcanic erutions 

when-Takes place after volcanic eruption

why- due to cooling and contraction of magma after termination of eruption.

Fumaroles can be found along linear fracture or found along crater 

contents- gases- co2 , N,S,O2. Fumaroles dominated by S is called Solfatra 

example- Katmai volcano of Alaska- called a valley of ten thousand smokes

2.Geysers
Intermittent spouting of hot water and steam explosively from their craters.
Example- Old Faithful Geysers. Tellow stone national park USA, Iceland

3.Hotspring
A hot spring is a spring produced by the emergence of geothermally heated groundwater that rises from the Earth's crust. There are geothermal hot springs in many locations all over the crust of the earth. While some of these springs contain water that is a safe temperature for bathing

Water issuing from a hot spring is heated geothermally, that is, with heat produced from the Earth's mantle. In general, the temperature of rocks within the earth increases with depth. The rate of temperature increase with depth is known as the geothermal gradient. If water percolates deeply enough into the crust, it will be heated as it comes into contact with hot rocks. The water from hot springs in non-volcanic areas is heated in this manner.

Q)Difference between Geyser and hotspring

5. Intrusive topography

Batholith- long iregular,dome shaped, deep within earth. ex- found in ranchi plateu as ranchi batholith
laccolith- intrusion between sedimentary layers.magma pushes the sedimentary layer of upper strata to arch up.
loppolith- into shallow concave basin
sills- thick beds between bedding planes of sedimentary layers
sheets- thin layers
dykes-perpendicular

6.Discuss extrusive topography
elevated forms- volcanic cones- cinder, composite, parasitic, acid, basic, lava plug, and lava domes
depressed forms- crater caldera

lava plateau and domes
lava plains

7.Crater
depression formed at the mouth of volcanic vent.
crater lake
craterlets- small sized crater witin extensive crater
adventive crater- in parasite cones

8.Caldera.
enlarged form of crater
two concept- 1.due to subsidence 2. due to violent eruption
nested or grouped caldera- smaller caldera housed in big caldera

9. World distribution of volcanoes
Circumpacific- erebus of antartica to mayon of philipines
Mid continental- etna, visuvious, stromboli
mid Atlantic-iceland ,azores and St.helena
Intra-plate- hawaai to kamchatk

10. Plate tectonics and vulcanity

That is a close relationship between plate boundaries and vulcanity

15%active at constructive player margin

80%at destructive plate boundary

Some intra plate -Hawaii, fault zone of east Africa

Plate boundaries and intensity of volcanic activity

1. Diverge divergent played boundaries associated with quite eruption that is fissure eruption the volcanic lava is tholeitte

2. Effective plate boundary in the circum Pacific associated with violent eruption they consist of aand andesite-dacite and rhyolite

3. Active plume - Hawai

Pelean type- Pelee volcano of Martinique island.Most violent and most explosive

Ejected lavas are most viscous and pasty

Great force and intensity and roaring noise

Visuvius-extremely violent expulsion of magma due to enormous volume of explosive gases

Fissure type-slow upwelling of magma and spread over ground surface. Example- Laki fissure eruption in Iceland

1.PHYSICAL SETTING

1.PHYSICAL SETTING

1.Space relation ship of India with neighboring countries

India- B'desh- 4096km
India-China-3917 km

India- pak- 3310 km, saltro ridge, AGPL.

India-Nepal-1752 km

India-Mynmar- 1458 km 

(Hint- BCPNMB)

lat extent and longi extent

Area-

frontiers. 

Maritime borders.7517km

Islands - https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_islands_of_India

Unity and Diversity of India

2.Structure and relief

1. Geological Structure- Archaen, Purana, Dravida, Aryan (ArPuDA)

Archean rock system

1. Archean

2.Darwar

Purana rock system

1.Cuddapah

2.Vindhya

Dravida- 600-300 myaPaleozoic- from cambrian to carboniferous- (pals cam 2car)

beginning of life on earth,coal formations

Aryan (GoCreTerQ)

1.Gondawana- upper carboniferous, gondwana coal formations.

2.Cretaceous- 144-65 mya- creta means chalk, deccan trap

3.Tertiary-  from 65mya- origin of Himalayas

4.Quarternary-  from 2mya

1. very recent, 
2. because himalayas has been just now completed in tertiary the north indian plains came into existence by alluvial deposits by rivers, 
3. pleistocene Ice age effects , 
4. deposits of peninsular plateau

3.Drainage system and watersheds

Inland drainage basin (endorheic basin): When a river does not reach the sea but disappears into the sand, such a region is called an area of inland drainage. Inland drainage streams are ephemeral streams (short-lived). E.g.:

1. The Ghaggar river in Haryana, which is supposed to be remnant of the proverbial ancient Saraswati river, gets lost in dry sands near Hanumangarh in Rajasthan.
2. Western slopes of araavalli
3. The Luni river in Rajasthan originates near Ajmer and after flowing through Thar desert gets lost in the Rann of Kutch.
4. The Aksai Chin region in Ladakh too has some inland drainage.

4.Physiographic regions

5.Mechanism of Indian monsoons and rainfall patterns, Tropical cyclones and western disturbances

6.Floods and droughts

7.Climatic regions

8.Natural vegetation

9.Soil types and their distributions.

Topics to be covered

Map - showing distribution Soil in India 

Karewas soil

Montane soil